Arts of Mongols and Ilkhanids

The Mongol invasions in the 13^th century changed life in Iran radically and permanently. Genghis Khan's invasion in the 1220s, destroyed lives and property in north-eastern Iran on a grand scale. In 1258 Hulagu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson completed the conquest of Iran, and consolidated his control over Iraq, Iran and much of Anatolia. With his capital in Maragha in north-western Iran, he founded the Ilkhanid kingdom, nominally subject to the great Khan, Qubilai, ruler of China and Mongolia.

The Ilkhan dynasty, lasting from 1251 to 1335, represents in Persian art (paintings, ceramics and metalwork) the period of greatest Far Eastern influence. The later Ilkhanids tried to repair some of the destruction caused by their devastating invasion in the early 13^th century, by building new cities and employing native officials to administer the country.

Tile mosaic on south-west of the entrance portal
to the shrine of Bayazid Bistami, Bistam, 1313.

Detail of the mosaic, entrance to
Dervishes monastery, Natanz, 1304.

Ilkhanid architecture did not constitute a new style in its time, but continued the Seljuk plans and techniques. Seljuk double dome architecture was very popular under the Ilkhans and decorative brick displays while not completely abandoned, gave way to an ever-growing use of glazed ceramics. In Iran, large interior and exterior surfaces were first covered with great faience mosaics ('tile mosaic') of geometric, floral and calligraphic motifs in the 13^th century.

The technique was probably re-imported at the time from Asia Minor, where the Persian artists had fled before the Mongol invasion. One of the first Iranian monuments with large areas of faience mosaics is the Mausoleum of Oljeitu at Sultaniya.

As far as ceramics are concerned, all activity at Rayy ceased following the Mongol destruction in 1220, but Kashan pottery recovered immediately from the hardships suffered in 1224. Tiles were widely used both in architectural decoration and in mihrab¹, as in the Imamzada Yahya of Varamin, which has a mihrab dating back to c. 1265, bearing the signature of the famous Kashan potter Ali ibn-Muhammad ibn Ali Tahir. These were called kashi after their production centre in Kashan.

Mausoleum of Oljeitu, Sultaniya
Mausoleum of Oljeitu, Sultaniya, 1304-15

There are two types of pottery most associated with the Ilkhans, one is "Sultanabad" ware (whose name was taken from where the first pieces were discovered in the Sultanabad region) and the other "Lajvardina" (a simple successor to the minai technique). Gold over-painting set against a deep royal blue glaze makes Lajvardina ware one of the most spectacular ever produced in Persia.

Two cross tiles and two star tiles, Kashan
Two cross tiles and two star tiles, Kashan, c. 1260-1270

Pottery bowl with lobed sides, Sultanadad style
Pottery bowl with lobed sides, Sultanadad style,
early 14^th century.

In contrast to this, Sultanabad ware is heavily potted and makes frequent use of grey slip with thick outlines, while another type displays black painting under a turquoise glaze. The drawing is of indifferent quality, but the ware as a whole has a special interest as a classic example of the way Chinese motifs invaded the Persian ceramic tradition.

Persian miniature painting began in the Mongol period at the beginning of the 13^th century, when Persian painters were exposed to Chinese art, and Chinese painters worked at the Ilkhan courts in Iran. It is not known whether Persian artists went to China before the 15^th century; but it is certain that Chinese artists, imported by the Mongol rulers, went to Iran, like those whom Arghun used to paint the walls of Buddhist temples. Unfortunately, the works of these artists as well as the whole collection of secular mural paintings are lost.

Miniature painting, of a high artistic level, was the only form of painting to survive from this period. In Ilkhanid miniatures, the human figure, which had previously been depicted in stocky and stereotyped fashion, was now shown more gracefully with truer proportions; drapery folds gave the impression of depth. Animals were observed more carefully than before and lost their decorative rigidity, mountains lost their smooth appearance and skies were enlivened by typically curly white clouds with twisted garland shapes. These influences progressively fused with Iranian paintings and were finally assimilated into new forms. The major centre of Ilkhan painting was Tabriz.

Bahram Gur's Battle with the Dragon
Bahram Gur's Battle with the Dragon.
From the Shah-nama Ferdowsi, Tabriz. Second quarter of the 14^th century.

Some of the effects of Chinese influence can be seen in the painting of Bahram Gur's Battle with the Dragon from the famous Demotte "Shah-namah" (The Book of Kings), illustrated in Tabriz in the second quarter of the 14^th century. The mountains and landscape details are of Far Eastern origin as of course is the dragon with which the hero is locked in combat. By using the frame as a window and placing the hero with his back to the reader, the artist creates the impression that the event is actually taking place before our eyes.

Less obvious, but more important, is the vague undefined relationship of immediate foreground to distant background, and the abrupt cutting off of the composition on all sides. Most of the miniatures of the Demotte Shah-namah are to be considered among the masterpieces of all times, and this manuscript is one of the oldest copies of Ferdowsi's immortal epic poem.

The Shah-namah was frequently illustrated in the Ilkhanid period, probably because the Mongols developed a pronounced taste for the epic during the 13^th and 14^th centuries.

Ilkhanid scribes and illuminators brought the art of the book to the foreground.

Page from a Koran in muhaqqaq
Page from a Koran in muhaqqaq with
Persian interlinear translation and prophetic
traditions in Kufic characters around the
pages. Late 13th to early 14th century.

The schools of Mosul and Baghdad rivalled the best Mamluke¹ work and may indeed have laid the foundations for it. Characteristic of this school is the use of very large sheets (up to 75 x 50cm, 28" x 20") of Baghdad paper and correspondingly large-scale script, especially muhaqqaq².

Metalworking, which had flourished in north-east Persia, Khurassan, and Transoxiana, also suffered terribly from the Mongol invasion; however, it did not die out completely. After a gap in production of almost a century, which can be paralleled closely in architecture and painting, the industry revived. The key centres were in Central Asia, Azerbaijan (the principle centre of Mongol culture) and Southern Iran.

The combination of Persian style with Mesopotamian and Mamluke is characteristic of all the Ilkhanid metalwork. Mesopotamian metal inlay seems to have been inspired by Persian techniques, which it developed and perfected. Brass was substituted more and more for bronze, and gold inlay replaced red copper.

There was also a tendency in Mesopotamian work to cover the complete surface by minute ornamental patterning and human and animal figures were always well defined. However, Persian works showed a preference for a technique of inlay and engraving which avoided rigid and precise contours. There was also a reluctance to cover the whole surface with ornaments.

Towards the end of the 13^th century, the Far Eastern influence is evident in both the Persian and Mesopotamian styles in the more naturalistic treatment of the plant ornaments (among which appear the lotus flower...) and the typically elongated human form.